On Helmert Coding

This post discusses the behavior of Helmert contrasts.
R
Published

January 14, 2024

I’ve had many discussions with colleagues over the past year about helmert contrasts, and I’ve decided to compile some of my notes here. This post discusses helmert coding, which is a type of contrast coding scheme where comparisons are made in a “nesting” fashion. However, there are different ways to represent these nested comparisons in a contrast matrix. Their corresponding hypothesis matrices simplify to the same statistical test, but the coefficient estimates have different magnitudes. These magnitudes differ by a scaling factor, which I will show how to derive. As a result, the statistical inference drawn will be the same whether the matrix is scaled or unscaled, but using the coefficient magnitude at face-value for something else (e.g., claims about differences in reaction time, future power analyses) will be misleading.

I will include various exercises throughout this document that you can do yourself to better understand what’s going in.

What is Helmert Coding?

Helmert coding is a type of contrast coding scheme that nests levels together for some of the comparisons. This is most evident when using a factor with more than 2 levels.1

At an abstract level, let’s say you have four groups A, B, C, and D which allots you 3 comparisons (n-1 degrees of freedom). Helmert coding allows you to compare the means of levels A and B (\(\mu_B - \mu_A\)) for your first comparison, then the mean of level C compared to the mean of levels A and B (\(\mu_C - \frac{\mu_A +\mu_B}{2}\)), then finally the mean of level D compared to the mean of levels A, B, C (\(\mu_D - \frac{\mu_A +\mu_B + \mu_C}{3}\)).

To give an example, let’s say you’re interested in comparing the duration of d, n, s, and sh word initially in words like dough, no, so, show. We have four levels, so we get three comparisons. We could pick a baseline level and compare the other two levels to it, but there’s a natural structure to these levels: they are all coronal sounds2 but three are continuants and two are sibilants3 (one compact (s) and the other diffuse (sh) ). So, we could compare the two sibilants together (sh-s) and then have another comparison between nasals and sibilants (n-sib=n-(s+sh)), then a final comparison between continuant coronals and a coronal stop. Thus, we have a comparison where two of the comparisons contain nested parts of the data. What we want to see is some statistical test for these comparisons, which themselves are just differences between means. We’ll see that in some versions of Helmert coding, this is a little off.

Helmert coding is also useful for another reason: the comparisons are mathematically orthogonal to one another, meaning that the comparisons are independent of one another. Read more about this here and here.

Issue with contr.helmert

One issue with the contr.helmert function provided in all installations of R via the stats package though is that the resulting coefficient estimates don’t straightforwardly encode the differences between means. Rather, the results are scaled by some multiplicative factor. We’ll build up to this with a toy example.

Code 
library(dplyr)
set.seed(111)
# Create random data for 4 groups with specified means
my_data <- data.frame(grp = factor(c(rep(c('A', 'B', 'C', 'D'),
                                         each = 2000))),
                      val = c(rnorm(2000, 1, .25),
                              rnorm(2000, 5, .25),
                              rnorm(2000, 10, .25),
                              rnorm(2000, 17, .25)))

In this first code block we’ve created four groups with very narrowly defined means. We can extract the means of our simulated data like so:

Code 
group_means <-
  my_data |>
  split(~grp) |> 
  vapply(\(grp_data) mean(grp_data$val), 1.0, USE.NAMES = TRUE)

group_means
         A          B          C          D 
 0.9935785  5.0083811 10.0039933 16.9910755

Now what we want to do is run a linear model to compute helmert-coded comparisons. Specifically what we want are these differences:

  • B - A
  • C - mean(B + A)
  • D - mean(C + B + A)

We can compute these differences manually ourselves so we can verify that the model is working as expected.

Exercise 1

Using a piece of paper or R, try to manually calculate what the above differences would be. Refer to to code block where we created our toy dataset for the mean values we used for each group. The answers are shown below using the group_means vector we defined.

Code 
# B vs A: mean(B) - mean(A): ~~ 5 - 1 ==> 4
group_means['B'] - group_means['A']
       B 
4.014803
Code 
# C vs A+B: mean(C) - mean(A, B): ~~ 10 - mean(1, 5) ==> 7
group_means['C'] - mean(c(group_means['B'],
                          group_means['A']))
       C 
7.003013
Code 
# D vs A+B+C: mean(D) - mean(A, B, C): ~~ 17 - mean(1, 5, 10) ==> 11.67
group_means['D'] - mean(c(group_means['A'],
                          group_means['B'],
                          group_means['C']))
       D 
11.65576

So these are the values we should be looking out for in our model. Let’s use the contrastable package (see here) to set contrasts moving forward. This will allow us to set labels easily and swap out contrast schemes.

Code 
library(contrastable)
coded_data1 <-
  set_contrasts(my_data, grp ~ contr.helmert | c("AvsB", "CvsAB", "DvsABC"))

set.seed(111)
model_1_coefs <- coef(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data1))

model_1_coefs
(Intercept)     grpAvsB    grpCvsAB   grpDvsABC 
   8.249257    2.007401    2.334338    2.913939

Take a moment to compare the results from the model above to the manual calculations we did. Are these values the same? (no, they are not) All of the values returned by the model are smaller than what we expect. These coefficient values need to be rescaled to get the correct values. If you want to try to figure out how much each value needs to be multiplied yourself, take a moment to compare the manual calculations to the model output.

We can scale the values like so:

Code 
model_1_coefs * (1:4)
(Intercept)     grpAvsB    grpCvsAB   grpDvsABC 
   8.249257    4.014803    7.003013   11.655758

So, the intercept (which is the grand mean) is fine, but the 2nd coefficient was off by a factor of 2, the 3rd by a factor of 3, and the 4th by 4. This is kind of a pain to remember to do, and most people I talk to don’t realize this needs to be done. We can get an idea for a solution from the contrast matrix:

Code 
contr.helmert(4)
  [,1] [,2] [,3]
1   -1   -1   -1
2    1   -1   -1
3    0    2   -1
4    0    0    3

For those just learning about contrast coding (or, if you’re more familiar with advanced topics, try to think of the most basic matrices), it’s a bit surprising to see a value like 3 there. contr.treatment and contr.sum are all 0s, 1s, and -1s, and sometimes you’ll see people use fractions like \(\pm0.5\)– a 3 is a bit out of place. But therein lies the solution: this contrast matrix needs to be scaled. Recall that the coefficients encoding the comparisons were off by factors of 2, 3, and 4. We can scale each column of the matrix using those values:

Code 
new_matrix <- contr.helmert(4)
new_matrix[,1] <- new_matrix[,1]/2
new_matrix[,2] <- new_matrix[,2]/3
new_matrix[,3] <- new_matrix[,3]/4

# Alternatively something like:
# apply(stats::contr.helmert(4), 2L, \(x) x / sum(x != 0))

new_matrix
  [,1]       [,2]  [,3]
1 -0.5 -0.3333333 -0.25
2  0.5 -0.3333333 -0.25
3  0.0  0.6666667 -0.25
4  0.0  0.0000000  0.75

We can use that new matrix to set the contrasts like before, rather than using contr.helmert:

Code 
coded_data2 <- 
  set_contrasts(my_data, grp ~ new_matrix | c("AvsB", "CvsAB", "DvsABC"))


set.seed(111)
model_2_coefs <- coef(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data2))

model_2_coefs
(Intercept)     grpAvsB    grpCvsAB   grpDvsABC 
   8.249257    4.014803    7.003013   11.655758

Now the values are exactly what we expected! But it was a bit annoying to have to remember to either multiply the output values or divide the input values. The contrastable package provides a version of helmert coding that already scaled the matrix appropriately.

Code 
helmert_code(4)
     [,1]       [,2]  [,3]
[1,] -0.5 -0.3333333 -0.25
[2,]  0.5 -0.3333333 -0.25
[3,]  0.0  0.6666667 -0.25
[4,]  0.0  0.0000000  0.75
Code 
coded_data3 <- 
  set_contrasts(my_data, grp ~ helmert_code | c("AvsB", "CvsAB", "DvsABC"))


set.seed(111)
model_3_coefs <- coef(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data3))

model_3_coefs
(Intercept)     grpAvsB    grpCvsAB   grpDvsABC 
   8.249257    4.014803    7.003013   11.655758

At this point, if you’re a researcher who has used contr.helmert in a published analysis and you didn’t know about all the scaling nonsense, I’m sure your stomach has sunk and your heart rate is elevated. On your mind is probably “but do the p values change??”. They don’t, so take a deep breath and we’ll look at the full model output. Flip through the tabs below and you’ll see that the t values and p values are exactly the same.

Code 
set.seed(111)
summary(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data1))

Call:
lm(formula = val ~ grp, data = coded_data1)

Residuals:
     Min       1Q   Median       3Q      Max 
-0.93903 -0.16719  0.00158  0.16922  1.02107 

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) 8.249257   0.002797  2949.3   <2e-16 ***
grpAvsB     2.007401   0.003956   507.5   <2e-16 ***
grpCvsAB    2.334338   0.002284  1022.1   <2e-16 ***
grpDvsABC   2.913939   0.001615  1804.4   <2e-16 ***
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.2502 on 7996 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.9982,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.9982 
F-statistic: 1.519e+06 on 3 and 7996 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16
Code 
set.seed(111)
summary(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data3))

Call:
lm(formula = val ~ grp, data = coded_data3)

Residuals:
     Min       1Q   Median       3Q      Max 
-0.93903 -0.16719  0.00158  0.16922  1.02107 

Coefficients:
             Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept)  8.249257   0.002797  2949.3   <2e-16 ***
grpAvsB      4.014803   0.007911   507.5   <2e-16 ***
grpCvsAB     7.003013   0.006851  1022.1   <2e-16 ***
grpDvsABC   11.655758   0.006460  1804.4   <2e-16 ***
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.2502 on 7996 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.9982,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.9982 
F-statistic: 1.519e+06 on 3 and 7996 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16

So the statistical tests are the same yet the coefficients are different. What does this mean for your previous findings? If you concluded an effect with a particular direction based on the sign of the coefficient, then that conclusion still holds.4 The signs of the coefficient values are the same, it’s just the magnitude of the coefficient estimates that’s off when using contr.helmert. However, if you made a claim about the strength of an effect, then you should revisit your analysis. For example, let’s say you run a self paced reading task and conclude that not only are reading times longer in one condition vs the nesting of two others, but in fact the penalty is the same size as some previous effect. You actually probably undersold this result, as it should have been multiplied by three. But on a theoretical basis, the comparison you made to some other effect/process may not hold (because this process is actually 3x more “powerful”).5 Moreover, future work using your effect estimate as a basis for future meta analyses of followup experiments would be a bit misguided. This might look suspicious later on if the experiment is replicated but somehow the effect is three times larger than what you reported.

Helmert contrasts and factor orders

Helmert coding provides comparisons with a “nested” structure of the factor levels. The nesting proceeds from the first level towards the last level, but this doesn’t have to be the case.

Exercise 2

Try running the previous code block using reverse_helmert_code instead of helmert_code. Answer the following questions:

  1. How did the contrast matrix change?
  2. How did the model output change?
  3. What do the coefficients correspond to? Use the approach we did previously with the group_means vector to figure out what difference each comparison corresponds to.
  4. Given your observations from the above questions, the labels we used before (c("AvsB", "CvsAB", "DvsABC")) no longer apply. What other kinds of labels might you use instead? Try adding labels in the set_contrasts() call using the | operator (the label-setting operator).

It’s important to remember that R will automatically set the indices of each level to their alphabetical order. We can change this behavior by explicitly setting what the levels of a factor are in the order we want the factor to use. That is, rather than A, B, C, D being assigned numeric indices underlying the factor of 1, 2, 3, 4, we want these assigned indices to be different. If you’re wondering why I wrote the previous clunky sentence, it’s because it’s worth mentioning that R differentiates between unordered and ordered factors. What we want here is NOT an ordered factor with a particular order, but an UNORDERED factor with the levels indexed in a particular order. Ordered factors by default use orthogonal polynomial contrasts (contr.poly), which is not at all what we want right now.6

Why does all this alphabetical order-but-not-ordered nonsense matter? Recall that Helmert coding nests from one level to another: either the first to the last or the last to the first. If these are not already in the order we want them to be nested in, then we need to put in some work to match things up like we want. Let’s say we actually want the ordering to be A, C, B, D/ We can set the order by setting the levels parameter of the factor() function.

Code 
coded_data4 <- 
  my_data |> 
  mutate(grp = factor(grp, levels = c("A", "C", "B", "D"))) |> 
  set_contrasts(grp ~ helmert_code)


set.seed(111)
model_4_coefs <- coef(lm(val ~ grp, data = coded_data4))

model_4_coefs
(Intercept)       grp>A       grp>C       grp>B 
  8.2492571   9.0104148  -0.4904048  11.6557579

The last thing I’ll touch upon is the edge case of contrast coding: factors with only 2 levels. I discuss this at length in my other blog post here, but the main point is that many contrast coding schemes are equivalent to one another when there are only 2 levels. In particular, helmert coding will give you \(\pm0.5\), but so would sum coding that’s been scaled by 2 (contr.sum(2)/2 is not uncommon to see in analysis scripts) or successive difference coding or… many other things. But this equivalence does not hold when there are more than 2 levels. This divergence is why it’s important to be explicit about exactly what your comparisons are trying to describe in the context of the analysis. If the goal is to compare one level to a baseline, then for 2 levels basically any contrast scheme (modulo sign and multiplicative factor) would give you that information. But if that’s the goal for a followup that “just adds another level”, then suddenly using helmert coding vs sum coding will give very different insights for that new comparison.

Takeaways

  • Helmert coding is useful for categorical variables where the comparisons have a nested structure to them.
  • The coefficients of contr.helmert need to be scaled to recover the actual differences of interest.
  • The statistical tests for scaled and unscaled helmert matrices are exactly the same: the differences are only in the magnitude of the effects.
  • Care should be taken in correctly setting up the nesting structure.
Final Exercise
  1. Select another type of contrast coding scheme other than Helmert coding, for example, contr.sum. Compare the matrices for 2 levels and for 4 levels. How do the matrices differ? What kinds of comparisons are encoded by the scheme you selected?
  2. Consider your field or your own research. Come up with an example of a categorical variable that can be construed as having a nested structure. How should the levels be ordered to get the nesting structure right? Come up with fake means for each level; can you predict what the correct signs for the coefficients would be? See the intro for an example from segmental phonology.
  3. A researcher has written the following sentence in their paper: “We fit a linear mixed effects model in R to our data, with all categorical variables using helmert coding.” Given the examples from this post and your own observations, what additional information would you want the researcher to share in order to be able to interpret their results correctly? Moreover, where would you want this information to be shared? In the preceding sentence? In the following sentence? An appendix? A footnote?

Footnotes

  1. See my other post on contrast coding here, where I show how many contrast coding schemes yield the same contrast matrix for 2-level factors.↩︎

  2. Coronal sounds are made with tongue constrictions somewhere between the alveolar ridge (the bump behind your teeth) and the hard palate.↩︎

  3. Sibilants are s-like sounds, in English we have s (as in hisssssss) and sh (as in wissssshhhhh). S is compact in that its energy is compacted to a high frequency band around 8-10kHz, while sh is diffuse because its energy is spread out across a larger frequency range, making it sound more “fuzzy” like white noise.↩︎

  4. Let’s withhold meta-level discussion about what constitutes an effect, decisions based on p-value criteria, replicability, etc. This is all outside the scope of this post.↩︎

  5. Let’s say the coefficient you got is +0.05 on the log scale, which is equivalent to a 5.1% slowdown between conditions. If the effect is actually supposed to be +0.15, it’s still a slowdown but it’s actually a 16.1% slowdown!↩︎

  6. You can see what the default contrasts are using options()$contrasts↩︎

Citation

BibTeX citation:
@online{sostarics2024,
  author = {Sostarics, Thomas},
  title = {On {Helmert} {Coding}},
  date = {2024-01-14},
  url = {https://tsostaricsblog.netlify.app/posts/helmert},
  langid = {en}
}
For attribution, please cite this work as:
Sostarics, Thomas. 2024. “On Helmert Coding.” January 14, 2024. https://tsostaricsblog.netlify.app/posts/helmert.